Washington’s crossing of the Delaware River from Bucks County, Pa., to New Jersey on Christmas night 1776 ignited a series of military actions culminating in the Battle of Princeton on Jan. 3, 1777.

The Emanuel Leutze’s c. 1850 painting of Washington Crossing the Delaware, created to arouse feelings of patriotism and dedication to a cause, is perhaps the iconic image of the American Revolution. Three days before the crossing, Washington was told that, New Jersey was “totally deranged, without government, or officers civil or military in it that will act with any spirit.”

After the disastrous summer and fall New York campaign, Washington had crossed his remaining troops to Pennsylvania at Trenton at the first week of December. Most of those troops were half-naked and ill-supplied short-timers, whose enlistments ended on or about Dec. 31.

However, they were true survivors who had overcome tremendous hardships and dangers. The deteriorating situation had led Thomas Paine to write The American Crisis, published Dec. 19, and famously proclaim, “These are the times that try men’s souls.” Things would only get worse with New Jersey under British control.

Upon arriving in Pennsylvania, Washington established a more than 20-mile string of camps between Coryell’s Ferry (modern New Hope) and Bristol to prevent the British from crossing the Delaware River after him.

Reflecting on his situation, Washington began to plan for an attack on Trenton as a first step to drive the British out of New Jersey. The attacks would take advantage of his troops outnumbering the soldiers in the individual British cantonments, including those at Trenton, Princeton, Bordentown, and Brunswick.

His plans developed over conversations with various officers and analyzing intelligence reports. However, Washington could not attack Trenton before Christmas, because he could not assemble enough troops and the many troops that arrived just a few days before under Gen. John Sullivan did were “in want of everything.”

Just a week before Christmas, young Boston bookseller Col. Henry Knox had convinced Washington to take 18 artillery pieces when attacking Trenton where the Hessians had six pieces.

That decision seemed to fly in the face of the need for speed and coordinated timing. The multiple cannon shot sizes created ammunition and powder supply issues complicated by the need for horses to pull the cannons, howitzers, and ammunition wagons.

However, superior artillery numbers would inflict shock and awe on the enemy, while psychologically bolstering his own men. Washington became strongly committed to overcoming the obvious difficulties created by the artillery.

As plans evolved, Pennsylvania Continental Congressman Benjamin Rush visited the stressed Washington on Dec. 23. While they talked, Rush noticed Washington writing on “several small pieces of paper.” One piece fell on the floor and Rush “was struck” by the inscription he saw on it, “Victory or Death.”

There would be no turning back, it was now or never.

Washington’s top officers met at Gen. Nathanael Greene’s headquarters on Christmas Eve to finalize the Trenton attack. Washington would cross the Delaware River to New Jersey with his main force of about 2,400 about 9 miles north of Trenton.

Some 700 Pennsylvania and New Jersey militia under Gen. James Ewing would cross at Trenton Ferry to prevent the Hessians from escaping south from Trenton while about 1,800 militiamen and New England Continentals at Bristol under Pennsylvania Col. John Cadwalader would cross there and advance toward Burlington.

Washington ordered at least 20 boats to assemble at McConkey’s Ferry to carry his troops across the river.

The sturdily constructed Durham boats, designed to carry heavy loads up and down a river, not across one, were between about 40 and 60 feet long, about 8 feet wide, were flat bottomed and were pointed at both ends like a canoe. The boat commander at the stern steered the craft with a 33-foot sweep. The crew rowed using 18-foot-long sweeps and could also push setting poles against the river bottom to drive the boat against a current or fend off rocks.

Durham boats were fine to carry his men, but the artillery, horses, and wagons required ferryboats to take them across.

Often called “flats,” ferries were designed to carry travelers, horses, and wagons across a river and were rectangular wooden boxes about 40 feet long with flat floors. Hinged gangplanks at both ends of the boat could be lowered against the riverbank to facilitate loading and unloading.

Each ferry was attached to a rope stretching across the river by two lines on pulleys that attached to cleats on the ferry toward each end. When starting across the river, the forward line was shortened and the after line lengthened to put the ferry at an angle in the current. This way, while the overhead rope prevented drifting down the river with the current, that current helped push the boat across the river, much as wind acts with a sail.

Crewmen also used long poles to push against the river bottom to get the boat moving or adjust its course. Just how many crossing ropes were set up at the two ferries to facilitate Washington’s crossing is not known.

In addition to collecting boats, Washington needed skilled men to operate them. For the Durham boats, Washington had the sailors and fishermen, including Black and Indigenous men, from Col. John Glover’s Marblehead, Massachusetts regiment, and Joseph Moulder’s young Pennsylvania militia artillerymen, who had skills such as ship carpenter, sailmaker and rigger.

Local militiamen had ferryboat experience and could help as well. Once the boats landed on the Jersey side, several dozen selected local militiamen who knew the roads would guide the army to Trenton in its overnight march.

Washington ordered all regiments to parade Dec. 25 on the Wrights Town Road, a mile back from the ferry, at precisely 4 p.m., half an hour before sunset, to begin the crossing.

Massachusetts fifer John Greenwood, only 16 years old, paraded about 4 p.m. with the sun shining brightly. The men were issued ammunition and flints before marching on to the ferry where his regiment halted, kindled fires and left their packs. Drizzling began at sunset and by the time they got to the river it was raining. He crossed “in a flat-bottomed scow.”

The crossing was to be completed by midnight, so they would be able to launch the attack on Trenton at 4 a.m., well before dawn.

River and weather conditions combined with late arriving troops to delay the start. Then, safely crossing the boats proved difficult due to “the force of the current, the sharpness of the frost, the darkness of the night, the ice which made during the operation, and a high wind.”

Knox directed the embarkation and remained on the Pennsylvania side of the river where “his stentorian voice was heard above the crash of ice which filled the river with floating cakes, and very much embarrassed the boats that were conveying the army.”

Two 40-man advance parties crossed first, with orders to immediately set up roadblocks at intersections about 3 miles outside Trenton.

Gen. Adam Stephen’s Virginia brigade followed next and spread out to form a chain of sentries guarding the area where the troops would form up upon crossing.

Soon after, Washington dismounted and crossed to New Jersey with his staff. But there is no clear evidence whether he crossed in a Durham boat or on a ferry.

Upon reaching shore, according to tradition Washington sat down on a box which may have once been used as a beehive, where he could be undisturbed and fight any thoughts challenging his determination to achieve “victory or death.”

He was described by one officer as “the heroic example of a chief determined to brave danger and dare death in support of a just cause, and the defence of the most precious rights and interests of mankind.”

Between about 10 and 11 p.m. rain turned into a severe storm with high winds. Once out in the river’s current the Durham boat crews needed to find a way to counteract the current pushing them downstream.

This required strenuous rowing partly upstream against the current and partly across the river. The long poles could also push against the river bottom to propel the boat against the current as well as across.

The ice contributed to the problems, making it exhausting work for the boat crews. If Washington considered abandoning or reducing the amount of artillery, he dismissed those thoughts, knowing that artillery was considered a foul weather weapon more reliable than muskets. It was now more important than ever.

As soldiers disembarked on the Jersey bank behind the Virginia Continentals’ sentry screen, they built fires to help keep warm during the seemingly interminable stormy hours they suffered through while awaiting orders to march.

Fifer Greenwood joined in pulling down fences to make warming fires as the storm increased in strength and “it rained, hailed, snowed, and froze, and at the same time blew a perfect hurricane” causing the wind and fire to cut the burning rails in two “in a moment.” To keep warm all over, he kept turning around “before the large bonfire.”

More positively for Greenwood, “the noise of the soldiers coming over and clearing away the ice, the rattling of the cannon wheels on the frozen ground, and the cheerfulness of my fellow-comrades encouraged me beyond expression.”

Troops continued to cross after the expired midnight deadline.

The infantrymen all crossed by about 2 a.m., but the artillery companies with their pieces and supplies took until 3 a.m. The army was finally formed up and made ready to march about 4 a.m., four hours behind schedule.

Adam Stephen’s brigade recalled its perimeter guards and led off the march to Trenton, marching eight men abreast in the snow, rain, and hail, not knowing just what their mission was.

Greenwood remembered, “we began an apparently circuitous march, not advancing faster than a child 10 years old could walk, and stopping frequently, though for what purpose I know not.”

Lt. Elisha Bostwick noted that torches secured to the artillery carriages lighted their march and “sparkled & blazed in the storm all night.”

They marched the first mile and half uphill on a rough and icy road with the storm blowing in their faces. When they reached the crossroads near the Bear Tavern, their militia guides directed them to turn right and march southeast on more level ground and with the storm now at their back.

However, the road was still slippery and difficult to follow. After a miserable night march, they did reach Trenton and defeated the Hessians stationed there, taking about 900 prisoners.

Only Washington’s troops succeeded in crossing the river that night. Even worse ice conditions at Trenton and Bristol prevented those crossings.

The 10 crucial days beginning with this Christmas crossing of the Delaware River and ending with the Battle of Princeton helped raise American spirits that allowed the war to continue for another six and half years.

Larry Kidder is a historian and author.